Emerald Ash Borer
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The emerald ash borer (''Agrilus planipennis''), also known by the acronym EAB, is a green buprestid or jewel beetle native to north-eastern Asia that feeds on ash species. Females lay eggs in bark crevices on ash trees, and larvae feed underneath the bark of ash trees to emerge as adults in one to two years. In its native range, it is typically found at low densities and does not cause significant damage to trees native to the area. Outside its native range, it is an
invasive species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
and is highly destructive to
ash trees ''Fraxinus'' (), commonly called ash, is a genus of flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae. It contains 45–65 species of usually medium to large trees, mostly deciduous, though a number of subtropical species are e ...
native to Europe and North America. Before it was found in North America, very little was known about emerald ash borer in its native range; this has resulted in much of the research on its biology being focused in North America. Local governments in North America are attempting to control it by monitoring its spread, diversifying tree species, and through the use of
insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to b ...
s and
biological control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also invo ...
.


History

French priest and naturalist Armand David collected a specimen of the species during one of his trips through
Imperial China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapte ...
in the 1860s and 1870s. He found the beetle in Beijing and sent it to France, where the first brief
description Description is the pattern of narrative development that aims to make vivid a place, object, character, or group. Description is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as ''modes of discourse''), along with exposition, argumentation, and narr ...
of ''Agrilus planipennis'' by the entomologist
Léon Fairmaire Léon Marc Herminie Fairmaire (29 June 1820 – 1 April 1906) was a French entomologist. A specialist in Coleoptera he assembled an immense collection comparable with that of Pierre François Marie Auguste Dejean (1780-1845). This is in the Mus ...
was published in the ''Revue d'Entomologie'' in 1888. Unaware of Fairmaire's description, a separate description naming the species as ''Agrilus marcopoli'' was published in 1930 by
Jan Obenberger Jan Obenberger ( May 15, 1892 in Prague – April 30, 1964) was a Czechoslovak entomologist. He was Professor of Zoology at the Charles University in Prague. He was a specialist in Buprestidae Buprestidae is a family of beetles known as jew ...
.


Identification

Adult beetles are typically bright metallic green and about long and wide.
Elytra An elytron (; ; , ) is a modified, hardened forewing of beetles (Coleoptera), though a few of the true bugs (Hemiptera) such as the family Schizopteridae are extremely similar; in true bugs, the forewings are called hemelytra (sometimes alterna ...
are typically a darker green, but can also have copper hues. Emerald ash borer is the only North American species of ''
Agrilus ''Agrilus'' is a genus of jewel beetles, notable for having the largest number of species (about 3000) of any single genus in the animal kingdom. '' Agrilus aureus'' Species * '' Agrilus abantiades'' Descarp ...
'' with a bright red upper abdomen when viewed with the wings and elytra spread. The species also has a small spine found at the tip of the abdomen and
serrate Serration is a saw-like appearance or a row of sharp or tooth-like projections. A serrated cutting edge has many small points of contact with the material being cut. By having less contact area than a smooth blade or other edge, the applied pr ...
antennae that begin at the fourth antennal segment. They leave tracks in the trees they damage below the bark that are sometimes visible. Adults beetles of other species can often be misidentified by the public.


Life cycle

The emerald ash borer life cycle can occur over one or two years depending on the time of year of
oviposition The ovipositor is a tube-like organ used by some animals, especially insects, for the laying of eggs. In insects, an ovipositor consists of a maximum of three pairs of appendages. The details and morphology of the ovipositor vary, but typical ...
, the health of the tree, and temperature. After 400–500 accumulated degree-days above , adults begin to emerge from trees in late spring, and peak emergence occurs around 1,000 degree-days. After emergence, adults feed for one week on ash leaves in the
canopy Canopy may refer to: Plants * Canopy (biology), aboveground portion of plant community or crop (including forests) * Canopy (grape), aboveground portion of grapes Religion and ceremonies * Baldachin or canopy of state, typically placed over an ...
before mating, but cause little defoliation in the process. Males hover around trees, locate females by visual cues, and drop directly onto the female to mate. Mating can last 50 minutes, and females may mate with multiple males over their lifespan. A typical female can live around six weeks and lay approximately 40–70 eggs, but females that live longer can lay up to 200 eggs. Eggs are deposited between bark crevices, flakes, or cracks and hatch about two weeks later. Eggs are approximately in diameter, and are initially white, but later turn reddish-brown if fertile. After hatching, larvae chew through the bark to the inner
phloem Phloem (, ) is the living biological tissue, tissue in vascular plants that transports the soluble organic compounds made during photosynthesis and known as ''photosynthates'', in particular the sugar sucrose, to the rest of the plant. This tran ...
,
cambium A cambium (plural cambia or cambiums), in plants, is a tissue layer that provides partially undifferentiated cells for plant growth. It is found in the area between xylem and phloem. A cambium can also be defined as a cellular plant tissue from w ...
, and outer
xylem Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in vascular plants, the other being phloem. The basic function of xylem is to transport water from roots to stems and leaves, but it also transports nutrients. The word ''xylem'' is derived from ...
where they feed and develop. Emerald ash borer has four larval
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ass ...
s. By feeding, larvae create long serpentine galleries. Fully mature fourth-instar larvae are long. In fall, mature fourth-instars excavate chambers about into the sapwood or outer bark where they fold into a J-shape. These J-shaped larvae shorten into prepupae and develop into pupae and adults the following spring. To exit the tree, adults chew holes from their chamber through the bark, which leaves a characteristic D-shaped exit hole. Immature larvae can
overwinter Overwintering is the process by which some organisms pass through or wait out the winter season, or pass through that period of the year when "winter" conditions (cold or sub-zero temperatures, ice, snow, limited food supplies) make normal acti ...
in their larval gallery, but can require an additional summer of feeding before overwintering again and emerging as adults the following spring. This two-year life cycle is more common in cool climates, such as
European Russia European Russia (russian: Европейская Россия, russian: европейская часть России, label=none) is the western and most populated part of Russia. It is geographically situated in Europe, as opposed to the cou ...
. File:Eablarva.jpg, Larva File:Eabpupa.jpg, Pupa removed from its pupal chamber. File:Eabexithole.jpg, Adults exit the tree from D-shaped holes. File:EmeraldAshBorerdorsal.jpg, Dorsal view of adult with elytra and wings spread. Image:Ventral adult eab.jpg, Underside of an adult emerald ash borer.


Range

The native range of the emerald ash borer is
temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
north-eastern Asia, which includes Russia, Mongolia, northern China, Japan, and Korea. The beetle is invasive in North America where it has a core population in
Michigan Michigan () is a state in the Great Lakes region of the upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the 10th-largest state by population, the 11th-largest by area, and the ...
and surrounding states and provinces. Populations are more scattered outside the core area, and the edges of its known distribution range north to
Ontario Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central Ca ...
, south to northern
Louisiana Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It is the 20th-smallest by area and the 25th most populous of the 50 U.S. states. Louisiana is borde ...
, west to
Colorado Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of t ...
, and east to
New Brunswick New Brunswick (french: Nouveau-Brunswick, , locally ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. It is the only province with both English and ...
, and in the Pacific Northwest in
Oregon Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...
. In eastern Europe, a population was found in Moscow in 2003. From 2003 to 2016, this population has spread west towards the European Union at up to per year and is expected to reach
central Europe Central Europe is an area of Europe between Western Europe and Eastern Europe, based on a common historical, social and cultural identity. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) between Catholicism and Protestantism significantly shaped the area' ...
between 2031 and 2036. Although not recorded from the European Union as of 2019, it has already spread to far eastern Ukraine from neighboring Russia.


Host plants

In its native range, emerald ash borer is only a nuisance pest on native trees, as population densities typically do not reach levels lethal to healthy trees. In China, it infests native ''F. chinensis'', ''F. mandshurica'', and ''F. rhynchophylla''; in Japan it also infests ''F. japonica'' and ''F. lanuginosa''. Emerald ash borer primarily infest and can cause significant damage to ash species including green ash (''
Fraxinus pennsylvanica ''Fraxinus pennsylvanica'', the green ash or red ash, is a species of ash native to eastern and central North America, from Nova Scotia west to southeastern Alberta and eastern Colorado, south to northern Florida, and southwest to Oklahoma an ...
''), black ash (''
Fraxinus nigra ''Fraxinus nigra'', the black ash, is a species of ash native to much of eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, from western Newfoundland west to southeastern Manitoba, and south to Illinois and northern Virginia. Formerly abundant, ...
''), white ash (''
Fraxinus americana ''Fraxinus americana'', the white ash or American ash, is a species of '' ash tree'' native to eastern and central North America. The species is native to mesophytic hardwood forests from Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, south to northern Florida ...
''), and blue ash (''
Fraxinus quadrangulata ''Fraxinus quadrangulata'', the blue ash, is a species of ash native primarily to the Midwestern United States from Oklahoma to Michigan, as well as the Bluegrass region of Kentucky and the Nashville Basin region of Tennessee. Isolated populati ...
'') in North America. In Europe, ''
Fraxinus excelsior ''Fraxinus excelsior'', known as the ash, or European ash or common ash to distinguish it from other types of ash, is a flowering plant species in the olive family Oleaceae. It is native throughout mainland Europe east to the Caucasus and Albor ...
'' is the main ash species colonized, which is moderately resistant to emerald ash borer infestation. Ash susceptibility can vary depending on the attractiveness of chemical
volatiles Volatiles are the group of chemical elements and chemical compounds that can be readily vaporized. In contrast with volatiles, elements and compounds that are not readily vaporized are known as refractory substances. On planet Earth, the term ' ...
to adults, or the ability of larvae to detoxify
phenolic Phenolic is an adjective and a substantive (noun) that may apply to : * Phenol (or carbolic acid), a colorless crystalline solid and aromatic compound * Phenols, a class of chemical compounds that include phenol * Phenolic content in wine * Phenol ...
compounds. Emerald ash borer has also been found infesting white fringe tree in North America, which is a non-ash host, but it is unclear whether the trees were healthy when first infested, or were already in decline because of drought. Another non-ash host has also been discovered, ''
Olea europaea The olive, botanical name ''Olea europaea'', meaning 'European olive' in Latin, is a species of small tree or shrub in the family Oleaceae, found traditionally in the Mediterranean Basin. When in shrub form, it is known as ''Olea europaea'' ...
'', albeit in a lab setting. Adults prefer to lay eggs on open grown or stressed ash but readily lay eggs on healthy trees amongst other tree species. Ashes that grow in pure stands, whether naturally occurring or in landscaping, are more prone to attack than isolated trees or ones located in mixed forest stands. Ashes used in landscaping also tend to be subjected to higher amounts of environmental stresses including compacted soil, lack of moisture, heating effects from urban islands, road salt, and pollution, which may also reduce their resistance to the borer. Furthermore, most ashes used in landscaping were produced from a handful of cultivars, resulting in low genetic diversity. Young trees with bark between to are preferred. Both males and females use leaf volatiles and
sesquiterpenes Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and often have the molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be cyclic or contain rings, including many unique combinations. Biochemical modificatio ...
in the bark to locate hosts. Damage occurs in infested trees by larval feeding. The serpentine feeding galleries of the larvae disrupt the flow of nutrients and water, effectively
girdling Girdling, also called ring-barking, is the complete removal of the bark (consisting of cork cambium or "phellogen", phloem, cambium and sometimes going into the xylem) from around the entire circumference of either a branch or trunk of a woody ...
, thus killing the tree, as it is no longer able to transport sufficient water and nutrients to the leaves to survive. Girdled ashes will often attempt to regenerate through stump sprouting, and there is evidence that stressed trees may also generate higher than normal seed crops as an emergency measure.


Invasiveness

Outside its native range, emerald ash borer is an
invasive species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
that is highly destructive to ash trees in its introduced range. Before emerald ash borer was found in North America, very little was known about the insect in its native range aside from a short description of life-history traits and taxonomic descriptions, which resulted in focused research on its biology in North America. The insect was first identified in Canton, Michigan (near
Detroit Detroit ( , ; , ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is also the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County. The City of Detroit had a population of 639,111 at th ...
), in 2002, but it may have been in the U.S. since the late 1980s. It is suspected that it was introduced from overseas in shipping materials such as packing crates. Without factors that would normally suppress emerald ash borer populations in its native range (e.g., resistant trees, predators, and
parasitoid wasp Parasitoid wasps are a large group of hymenopteran superfamilies, with all but the wood wasps (Orussoidea) being in the wasp-waisted Apocrita. As parasitoids, they lay their eggs on or in the bodies of other arthropods, sooner or later causin ...
s), populations can quickly rise to damaging levels. After initial infestation, all ash trees are expected to die in an area within 10 years without control measures. Every North American ash species has susceptibility to emerald ash borer, as North American species planted in China also have high mortality from infestations, but some Asian ash species are resistant, including '' F. baroniana, F. chinensis, F. floribunda, F. mandshurica'', and '' F. platypoda''.
Green ash ''Fraxinus pennsylvanica'', the green ash or red ash, is a species of ash native to eastern and central North America, from Nova Scotia west to southeastern Alberta and eastern Colorado, south to northern Florida, and southwest to Oklahoma and e ...
and
black ash Black ash is a common name for several plants and may refer to: * '' Acer negundo'', native to North America * ''Fraxinus nigra'', native to North America * ''Eucalyptus sieberi ''Eucalyptus sieberi'', commonly known as the silvertop ash or bl ...
trees are preferred by emerald ash borer. White ash is also killed rapidly but usually only after all green and black ash trees are eliminated.
Blue ash ''Fraxinus quadrangulata'', the blue ash, is a species of ash native primarily to the Midwestern United States from Oklahoma to Michigan, as well as the Bluegrass region of Kentucky and the Nashville Basin region of Tennessee. Isolated populati ...
is known to exhibit a higher degree of resistance to emerald ash borer, which is believed to be caused by the high
tannin Tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids. The term ''tannin'' (from Anglo-Norman ''tanner'', ...
content in the leaves making the foliage unpalatable to the insect. While most Asian ashes have evolved this defense, it is absent from American species other than blue ash. Researchers have examined populations of so-called "lingering ash", trees that survived ash borer attack with little or no damage, as a means of grafting or breeding new, resistant stock. Many of these lingering ashes were found to have unusual phenotypes that may result in increased resistance. Aside from their higher tannin content, Asian ashes also employ natural defenses to repel, trap, and kill emerald ash borer larvae. Although studies of American ashes have suggested that they are capable of mustering similar defensive mechanisms, the trees do not appear to recognize when they are under attack. Many of the specialized predators and parasitoids that suppressed emerald ash borer in Asia were not present in North America. Predators and parasitoids native to North America do not sufficiently suppress emerald ash borer, so populations continue to grow. Birds such as woodpeckers feed on emerald ash borer larva, although the adult beetles have not been used by any American fauna as food. Emerald ash borer populations can spread between per year. It primarily spreads through flight or by transportation of ash bark containing products such as firewood or nursery stock, which allows it to reach new areas and create satellite populations outside of the main infestation. Other factors can limit spread. Winter temperatures of approximately limit range expansion., and overwintering emerald ash borer survive down to average temperatures of because of antifreeze chemicals in the body and insulation provided by tree bark. Larvae can also survive high heat up to . Conversely, much like ashes grown in the nursery trade, the population of emerald ash borer in North America is believed to have originated from a single group of insects from central China and also exhibits low genetic diversity. North American predators and parasitoids can occasionally cause high emerald ash borer mortality, but generally offer only limited control. Mortality from native woodpeckers is variable. Parasitism by parasitoids such as '' Atanycolus cappaerti'' can be high, but overall such control is generally low. The
United States Department of Agriculture The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the United States federal executive departments, federal executive department responsible for developing and executing federal laws related to farming, forestry, rural economic development, ...
's
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) based in Riverdale, Maryland responsible for protecting animal health, animal welfare, and plant health. APHIS is the lead ...
published a rule on December 14, 2020—to take effect one month later, January 14, 2021—ending all EAB quarantine activities in the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
due to ineffectiveness so far. Other means will be used instead, especially biological controls (see §Biological control below).


Environmental and economic impacts

Emerald ash borer threatens the entire North American genus ''
Fraxinus ''Fraxinus'' (), common name, commonly called ash, is a genus of flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae. It contains 45–65 species of usually medium to large trees, mostly deciduous, though a number of Subtropics, subtropic ...
''. It has killed tens of millions of ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the 8.7 billion ash trees throughout North America. Emerald ash borer kills young trees several years before reaching their seeding age of 10 years. In both North America and Europe, the loss of ash from an ecosystem can result in increased numbers of invasive plants, changes in soil nutrients, and effects on species that feed on ash. Damage and efforts to control the spread of emerald ash borer have affected businesses that sell ash trees or wood products, property owners, and local or state governments. Quarantines can limit the transport of ash trees and products, but economic impacts are especially high for urban and residential areas because of treatment or removal costs and decreased land value from dying trees. Costs for managing these trees can fall upon homeowners or local municipalities. For municipalities, removing large numbers of dead or infested trees at once is costly, so slowing down the rate at which trees die through removing known infested trees and treating trees with insecticides can allow local governments more time to plan, remove, and replace trees that would eventually die. This strategy saves money as it would cost $10.7 billion in urban areas of 25 states over 10 years, while removing and replacing all ash trees in these same areas at once would cost $25 billion (with another estimate putting the removal alone at $20–60 billion). Some urban areas such as
Minneapolis Minneapolis () is the largest city in Minnesota, United States, and the county seat of Hennepin County. The city is abundant in water, with thirteen lakes, wetlands, the Mississippi River, creeks and waterfalls. Minneapolis has its origins ...
have large amounts of ash with slightly more than 20% of their
urban forest An urban forest is a forest, or a collection of trees, that grow within a city, town or a suburb. In a wider sense, it may include any kind of woody plant vegetation growing in and around human settlements. As opposed to a forest park, whose ec ...
as ash.


Monitoring

In areas where emerald ash borer has not yet been detected, surveys are used to monitor for new infestations. Visual surveys are used to find ash trees displaying emerald ash borer damage, and traps with colors attractive to emerald ash borer, such as purple or green, are hung in trees as part of a monitoring program. These traps can also have volatile
pheromones A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavio ...
applied to them that attract primarily males. Sometimes trees are girdled to act as trap trees to monitor for emerald ash borer. The stressed tree attracts egg-laying females in the spring, and trees can be debarked in the fall to search for larvae. If detected, an area is often placed under a quarantine to prevent infested wood material from causing new infestations. Further control measures are then taken within the area to slow population growth by reducing beetle numbers, preventing them from reaching reproductive maturity and dispersing, and reducing the abundance of ash trees. Government agencies in both the U.S. and Canada have utilized a native species of parasitoid wasp, '' Cerceris fumipennis'', as a means of detecting areas to which emerald ash borer has spread. The females of these wasps hunt other
jewel beetle Buprestidae is a family of beetles known as jewel beetles or metallic wood-boring beetles because of their glossy iridescent colors. Larvae of this family are known as flatheaded borers. The family is among the largest of the beetles, with some ...
s and emerald ash borer if it is present. The wasps stun the beetles and carry them back to their burrows in the ground where they are stored until the wasps’ eggs hatch and the wasp larvae feed on the beetles. Volunteers catch the wasps as they return to their burrows carrying the beetles to determine whether emerald ash borer is present. This methodology is known as biological surveillance, as opposed to biological control, because it does not appear that the wasps have a significant negative impact on emerald ash borer populations.


Management

In areas where emerald ash borer is non-native and invasive, quarantines, infested tree removal, insecticides, and biological control are used to reduce damage to ash trees.


Quarantine and tree removal

Once an infestation is detected, quarantines are typically imposed by state, or previously, national government agencies disallowing transport of ash firewood or live plants outside of these areas without permits indicating the material has been inspected or treated (i.e., heat treatment or wood chipping) to ensure no live emerald ash borer are present in the bark and phloem. In urban areas, trees are often removed once an infestation is found to reduce emerald ash borer population densities and the likelihood of further spread. Urban ash are typically replaced with non-ash species such as maple, oak, or linden to limit food sources. In rural areas, trees can be harvested for lumber or firewood to reduce ash stand density, but quarantines may apply for this material, especially in areas where the material could be infested. Kentucky Extension specialists suggest selecting uncommon species to replace removed ashes in the landscape. Previous generations created
monoculture In agriculture, monoculture is the practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time. Monoculture is widely used in intensive farming and in organic farming: both a 1,000-hectare/acre cornfield and a 10-ha/acre field of organic kale are ...
s by planting ash trees in an overabundance, a factor in the extent of the devastation caused by the emerald ash borer. Favoring instead a diversity in species helps keep urban forests healthy.
University of Kentucky The University of Kentucky (UK, UKY, or U of K) is a Public University, public Land-grant University, land-grant research university in Lexington, Kentucky. Founded in 1865 by John Bryan Bowman as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentu ...
scientists suggest choosing monotypic species such as the pawpaw, yellowwood,
Franklin tree Franklin may refer to: People * Franklin (given name) * Franklin (surname) * Franklin (class), a member of a historical English social class Places Australia * Franklin, Tasmania, a township * Division of Franklin, federal electoral div ...
,
Kentucky coffeetree The Kentucky coffeetree (''Gymnocladus dioicus''), also known as American coffee berry, Kentucky mahogany, nicker tree, and stump tree, is a tree in the subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the legume family Fabaceae, native to the Midwest, Upper South, ...
,
Osage orange ''Maclura pomifera'', commonly known as the Osage orange ( ), is a small deciduous tree or large shrub, native to the south-central United States. It typically grows about tall. The distinctive fruit, a multiple fruit, is roughly spherical ...
,
sourwood ''Oxydendrum arboreum'', the sourwood or sorrel tree, is the sole species in the genus ''Oxydendrum'', in the family Ericaceae. It is native to eastern North America, from southern Pennsylvania south to northwest Florida and west to southern I ...
, and
bald cypress ''Taxodium distichum'' (bald cypress, swamp cypress; french: cyprès chauve; ''cipre'' in Louisiana) is a deciduous conifer in the family Cupressaceae. It is native to the southeastern United States. Hardy and tough, this tree adapts to a wide r ...
.


Insecticides

Insecticides with active ingredients such as
azadirachtin Azadirachtin, a chemical compound belonging to the limonoid group, is a secondary metabolite present in neem seeds. It is a highly oxidized tetranortriterpenoid which boasts a plethora of oxygen-bearing functional groups, including an enol ether, ...
,
imidacloprid Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide belonging to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system ...
,
emamectin benzoate Emamectin is the 4”-deoxy-4”-methylamino derivative of abamectin, a 16-membered macrocyclic lactone produced by the fermentation of the soil actinomycete ''Streptomyces avermitilis''. It is generally prepared as the salt with benzoic acid, ema ...
, and
dinotefuran Dinotefuran is an insecticide of the neonicotinoid class developed by Mitsui Chemicals for control of insect pests such as aphids, whiteflies, thrips, leafhoppers, leafminers, sawflies, mole cricket, white grubs, lacebugs, billbugs, beetles, m ...
are currently used. Dinotefuran and imidacloprid are systemic (i.e., incorporated into the tree) and remain effective for one to three years depending on the product. Insecticides are typically only considered a viable option in urban areas with high value trees near an infestation. Ash trees are primarily treated by direct injection into the tree or soil drench. Some insecticides cannot be applied by homeowners and must be applied by licensed applicators. Damage from emerald ash borer can continue to increase over time even with insecticide applications. Insecticide treatments are not feasible for large forested areas outside of urban areas.


Biological control

The native range of emerald ash borer in Asia was surveyed for parasitoid species that parasitize emerald ash borer and do not attack other insect species in the hope they would suppress populations when released in North America. Three species imported from China were approved for release by the
USDA The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the federal executive department responsible for developing and executing federal laws related to farming, forestry, rural economic development, and food. It aims to meet the needs of com ...
in 2007 and in Canada in 2013: ''
Spathius agrili ''Spathius agrili'' is a parasitic non-stinging wasp of family Braconidae which is native to North Asia. It is a parasitoid of the emerald ash borer (''Agrilus planipennis'' Fairmaire), an invasive species which has destroyed tens of millions of ...
'', ''
Tetrastichus planipennisi ''Tetrastichus planipennisi'' is a parasitic non-stinging wasp of the family Eulophidae which is native to North Asia. It is a parasitoid of the emerald ash borer (''Agrilus planipennis'' Fairmaire, family Buprestidae), an invasive species which ...
'', and ''
Oobius agrili ''Oobius agrili'' is a parasitic non-stinging wasp of family Encyrtidae which is native to North Asia. It is a parasitoid of the emerald ash borer ('' Agrilus planipennis'' Fairmaire, family Buprestidae), an invasive species which has destroye ...
'', while '' Spathius galinae'' was approved for release in 2015. Excluding ''Spathius galinae'', which has only recently been released, the other three species have been documented parasitizing emerald ash borer larvae one year after release, indicating that they survived the winter, but establishment varied among species and locations. ''Tetrastichus planipennisi'' and ''Oobius agrili'' established and have had increasing populations in Michigan since 2008; ''Spathius agrili'' has had lower establishment success in North America, which could be caused by a lack of available emerald ash borer larvae at the time of adult emergence in spring, limited cold tolerance, and better suitability to regions of North America below the 40th parallel. The USDA is also assessing the application of '' Beauveria bassiana'', an insect fungal
pathogen In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ ...
, for controlling emerald ash borer in conjunction with parasitoid wasps.


See also

* Forest integrated pest management *
Forest pathology Forest pathology is the research of both biotic and abiotic maladies affecting the health of a forest ecosystem, primarily fungal pathogens and their insect vectors. It is a subfield of forestry and plant pathology. Forest pathology is part ...
*
Chestnut blight The pathogenic fungus ''Cryphonectria parasitica'' (formerly ''Endothia parasitica'') is a member of the Ascomycota (sac fungi). This necrotrophic fungus is native to East Asia and South East Asia and was introduced into Europe and North America ...
*
Dutch elm disease Dutch elm disease (DED) is caused by a member of the sac fungi (Ascomycota) affecting elm trees, and is spread by elm bark beetles. Although believed to be originally native to Asia, the disease was accidentally introduced into Americas, America ...
*
Invasive species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...


References


External links


Interview with researcherCanadian Food Inspection AgencyUSDA Forest Service Northern Research Station link to research on EABSpecies Profile- Emerald Ash Borer (''Agrilus planipennis'')
National Invasive Species Information Center,
United States National Agricultural Library The United States National Agricultural Library (NAL) is one of the world's largest agricultural research libraries, and serves as a national library of the United States and as the library of the United States Department of Agriculture. Located ...
. Lists general information and resources for Emerald Ash Borer. * {{Taxonbar, from=Q1960177 Buprestidae Beetles of Asia Insects of Russia Woodboring beetles Insect pests of temperate forests Forestry in the United States Beetles described in 1888 Taxa named by Léon Fairmaire